Brown v. Board of Education’s Impact on the Academic Achievement and Psychological State of Black Students: Wrong Approaches and the Creation of Latent Stereotypes in Society

The fight for racial equality has been deeply intertwined with the demand for equal
educational opportunities. Judicial victories such as Brown v. Board of Education (1954) were
intended to halt racial segregation and reform the educational system. Civil rights activists hailed
these laws as monumental victories for the Black community, referencing the promise of equal
access to education and a more just society. Yet, decades later, disparities in academic
performance, social integration, and psychological well-being continue to plague Black students
[1]. The legal precedent of Brown v. Board of Education, lacking safeguards to ensure equality in
educational opportunity and accessibility, has negatively shaped Black students’ psychological
states in many ways. These shortcomings of the judiciary foster subtle, yet enduring, societal
biases that continue affecting Black students today.
Before landmark civil rights laws, Black students faced blatant educational inequities.
Racial segregation was upheld by the infamous “separate but equal” doctrine established in
Plessy v. Ferguson (1896). It perpetuated an educational system designed to maintain racial
hierarchies. Black schools were underfunded, under-resourced, and neglected by the state,
leading to poor academic performance and limited opportunities for advancement [2]. The lack
of resources extended beyond disparities in the classroom. Inequalities shaped the self-perception
of Black students, which embedded ideas of inferiority and had lasting effects on their
self-esteem and sense of worth.
In addition to school segregation in education, the absence of Black role models in
educational leadership – due to systemic racism, discriminatory hiring practices, and limited
access to higher education for African Americans – reinforced societal messages of inferiority
[3]. This stifled intellectual growth and aspirations for higher education, subsequently creating
psychological barriers that hindered academic success [3]. Black students internalized negative
stereotypes, creating self-fulfilling prophecies in which they accepted the limitations imposed on
them. This inadvertently perpetuated the very systems designed to oppress them.
These effects are difficult to undo, as the structure of the education system was built on
the premise of Black inferiority. The Supreme Court overturned the “separate but equal” doctrine
in 1954 with a unanimous decision in Brown v. Board of Education. The ruling promised to end
segregation and ensure equitable schools, where Black and white students could access the same
opportunities, quality of education, and treatment [4]. While the desegregation of schools housed
Black and white students under one roof, the deep-rooted damage inflicted by decades of
segregation continued to persist and be disregarded, fostering new psychological challenges that
continue to affect educational equality today.
Following Brown v. Board of Education, school desegregation was intended to mark a
new era of equality, yet it introduced psychological consequences that undermined the promise
of equal opportunity for Black students. By mandating integrated schooling, Brown removed the
legal barriers of segregation but did little to dismantle the entrenched social biases and systemic
racism within new environments. The government implemented Brown v. Board of Education
without a comprehensive and equitable plan to support the integration of Black students into
previously segregated schools. This failure overlooked the critical need to address the historical
inequities they faced, such as inadequate resources, systemic barriers to social mobility, and a
lack of Black role models in education due to the cycle of disenfranchisement [5]. Ensuring
successful integration required more than merely placing Black and White students in the same
classrooms—it demanded intentional strategies to level the playing field by addressing systemic
disparities and allowing genuine, lasting, progress.

While increased access to academic resources and opportunities did lead to an increase in
academic achievement, academic gains were not always matched by improvements in
self-esteem and mental health. Instead of fostering true inclusivity, the implementation of Brown
v. Board of Education created an environment where Black students faced direct alienation and
discrimination. They encountered both overt racism and microaggressions firsthand, rather than
experiencing prejudice mainly through physical separation from their White counterparts [6]. It
is no surprise that despite Black children’s accomplishments, they were surrounded by peers who
often viewed them through the lens of detrimental stereotypes– contributing to further feelings of
inferiority impacting mental health. A 1968 study revealed that the mental health of Black
students has shown marked trends before and after desegregation legislation, with reports
indicating increased anxiety, lower self-esteem, and higher rates of depression as Black students
entered integrated schools [7]. Moreover, while one might expect conditions to improve over
time, data from the 1990s revealed a troubling 73% increase in suicide rates among Black
students. Studies from this period also found that for Black students who developed depression,
the condition was prolonged due to the compounded effects of racism and stigma [8]. The
desegregated school environment may have granted access to educational resources, but it
simultaneously burdened Black students with the enduring pressures of a society that questioned
their place within it. These students were expected to thrive in predominantly white institutions
where they frequently encountered hostility, stereotyping, bias, and a lack of Black role models
to find comfort in or look up to.
Thus, many Black students began questioning their worth and felt as though they did not
truly belong [9]. The psychological burden of confronting daily systemic biases in educational
spaces where they often feel out of place can exacerbate feelings of imposter syndrome among
these students. Culture, development, and environment are significant factors in shaping the
predispositions of imposter syndrome, with research pointing to family dynamics and the societal
roles people learn early in life as driving factors. While racial inequalities were inherently more
severe before this landmark decision, it makes sense why the prevalence of imposter syndrome
only came to light after school desegregation. Those who struggle with imposter syndrome
believe they are undeserving of their achievements. They feel that they aren’t as competent or
intelligent as others might think, and worry that people will discover the "truth" about them.
Interestingly, individuals with imposter syndrome are often well-accomplished, holding high
offices or numerous academic degrees [10]. For Black students navigating newly integrated
schools post-desegregation, these feelings could be exacerbated by cultural and systemic
pressures, as well as the latent stereotypes persisting in society. This would only result in further
internalization of the racial biases they had already encountered, which were also likely
magnified by more frequent exposure to those who perpetuated these stereotypes in a new
setting. This is directly correlated to stereotype threat, which refers to “being at risk of
confirming, as self-characteristic, a negative stereotype about one's group” [11]. This term was
introduced by Steele and Aronson (1995), who demonstrated through various experiments that
Black college freshmen and sophomores scored lower on standardized tests than their White
counterparts when their race was highlighted. Conversely, when race was not emphasized, Black
students performed equally well or better compared to White students. These findings indicated
that awareness of being judged through the lens of racial stereotypes can negatively impact
academic performance [11]. This also reinforces negative self-perceptions, creating feelings of
internal unworthiness of one’s achievements, and leading to self-sabotage [11]. These common
trends further highlight how the societal shifts of this period negatively impacted the mental well-being of Black students generationally, underscoring the importance of a thoughtful and
deliberate approach to the equitable integration of black students following the enactment of
Brown v. Board.
The struggle of stereotyping extended beyond societal biases and negative treatment from
white peers, directly impacting Black students’ academic experiences and discipline. A 2019
Princeton study showed that Black students were three times more likely to be suspended than
their white peers—a disparity unchanged from 45 years ago [12]. The Children’s Defense Fund’s
1975 study attributed this difference to racial bias among white teachers, especially in the South,
noting that vague codes of conduct allowed for biased interpretations [13]. This
disproportionality is driven by stereotypes that portray Black students as "troublemakers" — "a
label students too often internalize as part of their identities", experts say. Not only does
disciplinary discrimination harm their academic and social trajectories, but also interferes with
their opportunities to learn, contributing to higher dropout rates and the school-to-prison pipeline
[14]. Kenneth Eban of the Advancing Equity Coalition emphasized that “the U.S. school system
was never designed for us,” a system that Brown v. Board disrupted without considering the
consequences for Black students’ sense of belonging and worth [15].
The psychological impact of internalized stereotypes persists well into adulthood, leaving
a lasting imprint on contemporary society. Even after 70 years, the repercussions of inadequate
planning during the desegregation transition continue to affect Black students today. A recent
study showed that Black emerging adults encounter mental health issues at significantly higher
rates than their white counterparts, primarily due to the systemic biases and discrimination they
experience within predominantly white educational environments [16]. Moreover, a study
conducted at the University of Minnesota School of Public Health underscored the long-term
mental health benefits for Black students who attended Historically Black Colleges and
Universities (HBCUs) in comparison to their peers at predominantly white institutions (PWIs).
Black students attending HBCUs reported a reduction in depressive symptoms seven years
post-graduation, particularly among those who experienced elevated depressive symptoms
during their teenage years [17]. The discrepancy in results between the students suggests that
Black students attending schools where peers of the same racial background surround them may
alleviate the detrimental effects of structural racism on their mental health. Black students being
placed in white environments has only shown a decline in mental health. Although there have
been advancements in social conduct toward the Black community, the matter of Black students’
mental health remains an equally important consideration. Thus, there’s a discrepancy in focus
on the external perceived equality, while the internal equality is left unaddressed.
Since Brown v. Board of Education, it is undeniable that Black student achievement has
advanced considerably nationwide. The National Assessment of Educational Progress (NAEP)
data provides evidence of this progress, indicating that Black students’ academic performance,
particularly in math and reading, has improved at a significant rate over the past few decades
[18]. Despite this, Black fourth-graders now are only still achieving average math scores of white
students from a generation ago. The gap between Black and white achievement still stands, as
white students’ average performance has also improved over time. Today, the average white
student performs better than approximately 75 percent of Black students, underscoring how the
goal of equal qualification for the labor market remains elusive.
Nonetheless, academic progress alone remains insufficient to achieve genuine equity.
Addressing this complex issue requires focus beyond mere desegregation, and remediating implicit racial prejudice. The enduring psychological impacts embedded in society, resulting from a lack of attention towards the necessary steps for true equity, have fostered latent
stereotypes that continue to shape perceptions of Black students and their self-concepts. These
stereotypes often portray Black students as violent, lazy, and unruly—views that are frequently
reinforced by teachers' assumptions [19]. Research has shown that teachers, particularly white
educators, expect less from Black students and interpret their behavior through their biased lens,
even in situations where white students would be treated more leniently [20]. These deeply
ingrained stereotypes not only perpetuate discriminatory assumptions and expectations in the
classroom, but also contribute to distortions in self-perceptions, psychological well-being, and
aspirations.
Psychologist Kenneth Clark conducted a study in Clarendon County (and other school
districts whose cases were connected to Brown) to test the self-concept of young black students.
Clark’s seminal doll experiments, conducted in both segregated Southern schools and integrated
Northern schools, revealed that Black children exhibited stronger positive associations with
white dolls over Black dolls. The preference for a race other than their own at both segregated
and integrated schools speaks volumes, exposing the profound internalization of racial
hierarchies that remains unresolved [21]. This phenomenon suggests that school segregation
represented only a portion of a broader societal caste system, generating what Chief Justice Earl
Warren described as a “feeling of inferiority as to their status in the community that may affect
their hearts and minds in a way unlikely ever to be undone” [22]. Psychological scars of racism
extend well beyond physical segregation. There are entrenching feelings of inferiority
deep-rooted in self-hatred that limit Black students' capacity to realize their academic potential.
While many implicit biases lie within the mind, physical boundaries still exist and further
complicate reaching the level of equality required in modern society. A significant reason for the
limited progress toward educational equity lies in the persistent neglect of critical, unresolved
issues. “It’s not that Brown failed; it’s that we failed to finish the job,” notes Janel George,
associate professor of law at Georgetown University Law Center and founding director of the
Racial Equity in Education Law and Policy Clinic. By “we,” George refers to the federal officials
who withdrew their support for desegregation efforts after Brown v. Board of Education. Many
assumed that the decision alone resolved the problem, neglecting the ongoing commitment
needed to achieve real equality. In a 2022 article, George outlines this shift: President Nixon
appointed Supreme Court justices who resisted desegregation remedies, and President Reagan
dismantled the Emergency School Aid Act, a federal initiative supporting school desegregation.
Reagan ultimately cut nearly all federal funding for diversity programs, retaining only the
Magnet Schools Assistance Program, thereby stalling the momentum for integration [23]. This
pattern of withdrawing support for desegregation has left Brown’s promises unfulfilled, with
deep-rooted structural barriers remaining intact. Their neglect had a profound impact on students,
leaving them to navigate an educational system that, despite its promise, continued to perpetuate
inequality and hinder their chances for meaningful progress. The lack of sustained support and
conflict intervention left Black students vulnerable to systemic biases and inequities, further
damaging their sense of belonging and potential.
Despite the progress achieved through desegregation policies, the United State’s
prolonged inability—or reluctance—to address the root causes of racial inequality has
underscored racism as a persistent, unresolved societal ideology. This failure in tackling racial
prejudice has put racial stereotypes in an unprogressing state, influencing perceptions of Black
students’ intellectual abilities, behavior, and aspirations. Subconscious biases manifest in the
classroom through disciplinary biases, disproportionate expectations, and limitations on Black students' academic advancement, embedding stereotypes further into the collective psyche.
Brown’s goal was for this landmark decision to serve as a solution to racial disparities in school,
but clearly, this “solution” has not gotten us there. 70 years have passed, and the latent
stereotypes that emerged post-desegregation, due to the internalization of these biases, continue
to harm the black student community. A recent study by the University of Georgia underscores
the emotional toll that racial bias continues to exert on Black youth, with young Black students
today facing heightened stress, depression, and anxiety due to internalized societal biases [24].
With the issue of reaching true racial equity in a state of limbo, lacking both structural
and legal efforts to tackle the root of implicit biases in educational spaces, one of the unfortunate
legacies of Brown v. Board of Education is the complex question: might racially divided schools
have allowed Black students to retain a stronger sense of community, self-confidence, and
resilience? Although segregation undoubtedly limited access to the resources and opportunities
available to white students, some evidence suggests that Black students in segregated
environments felt a deeper connection and solidarity within their communities. This internal
support often served as a protective factor, fostering positive identity and cultural pride. School
integration, by exposing Black students to racially biased environments, may have brought
opportunities, but it also burdened them with heightened exposure to discrimination and
isolation, which compounded mental health challenges. The takeaway is not to suggest a return
to racially divided schools but to recognize the significance of one’s comfortability and support
in educational environments. A strong sense of belonging is crucial if equality is the goal, as it
heavily influences one’s academic experiences, self-perceptions, self-esteem, and overall
well-being [25].
The Brown decision facilitated strides in providing Black students with better access to
education and greater opportunities. However, it is evident that these efforts, while crucial, have
not eradicated the latent stereotypes and psychological challenges that Black students have faced,
and are continuing to face today. As society continues to grapple with this systemic racism, it is
clear that civil rights legislation alone cannot solve the deep-rooted racial biases that continue to
shape one’s identity. Ultimately, achieving genuine equity for Black students involves a dual
focus on removing external and internal barriers to their success. Only by recognizing and
addressing the presence of latent stereotypes, implicit biases, and structural inequalities, can
society fulfill the promise of Brown v. Board of Education, ensuring that Black students not only
attain equal opportunities but are also empowered to reach their fullest potential in an
environment that values and respects their identity.

[1] Carrie Spector, “Racial Disparities in School Discipline Are Linked to the Achievement Gap
between Black and White Students Nationwide, According to Stanford-Led Study,” Stanford
GSE, October 16, 2019

[2] Derek W Black and Axton Crolley, “Legacy of Jim Crow Still Affects Funding for Public
Schools,” University of South Carolina, April 19, 2022

[3] Linda Darling-Hammond, “Unequal Opportunity: Race and Education,” Brookings, March 1,
1998

[4]Joe R. Feagin and Bernice McNair Barnett, “Success and Failure: How Systemic Racism
Trumped the Brown v. Board of Education Decision,” Illinois Experts, January 1, 2004

[5] “Social Injustice in the Education System: Addressing Systemic Barriers,” Gray Group
International, October 1, 2024

[6] Monica T. Williams et al., “A Qualitative Study of Microaggressions against African
Americans on Predominantly White Campuses - BMC Psychology,” BioMed Central, October
23, 2020

[7] Julia Wolf, “How Student Outcomes Were Impacted by the Desegregation of Schools,” The
Thomas B. Fordham Institute, April 28, 2022

[8] Zawn Villines, “Depression in Black Americans: Causes, Statistics, and Treatments,”
Medical News Today, July 27, 2020

[9] Kamryn S. Morris et al., “Racial Discrimination Stress, School Belonging, and School Racial
Composition on Academic Attitudes and Beliefs among Black Youth,” MDPI, October 28, 2020

[10] Erin Michel, “All about Imposter Syndrome,” University of Cincinnati, accessed December
2, 2024

[11] University of California, Berkeley Advising Matters, "Understanding Stereotype Threat in
Education," University of California, 2019.

[12] Rose B. Kelly, “Racial Bias Associated with Disparities in Disciplinary Action across U.S.
Schools,” Princeton University, April 2, 2019

[13] Washington Research Project, Cambridge, Mass. Children's Defense Fund, "Educational
Equity in America," U.S. Department of Education, 1975

[14] Marshall Terrill, “Turning Bias around in the Classroom,” Turning bias around in the
classroom, October 29, 2021

[16] Thomas A Vance, “Addressing Mental Health in the Black Community,” Columbia
University Department of Psychiatry, February 8, 2019

[17]1. Naomi Harada Thyden et al., “Estimating the Long-Term Causal Effects of Attending
Historically Black Colleges or Universities on Depressive Symptoms,” American Journal of
Epidemiology, November 4, 2022

[18] Economic Policy Institute, "Policy Recommendations for Addressing Educational
Inequality," EPI, 2020

[19] Dominique DeCastro, “Confronting the Unruly Black Student Stereotype - Youth
Communication,” Youth Communication, accessed December 3, 2024

[20]1. Jill Rosen, “Teacher Expectations Reflect Racial Biases, Johns Hopkins Study Suggests,”
The Hub, March 30, 2016

[21] Kluger, Richard, Simple Justice: The History of Brown v. Board of Education and Black
America's Struggle for Equality, Alfred A. Knopf, 1976

[22] Stanford King Institute, "Brown v. Board of Education of Topeka," Stanford University,
1954

[23] Brenda Alvarez, “Revisiting Brown v. Board of Education – 70 Years Later,” NEA Today,
May 9, 2024

[24] Leigh Hataway, “Black Youth Are Paying an Emotional Toll Due to Racism,” June 17, 2024

[25] Gopalan Maithreyi, “Students’ Sense of Belonging Matters: Evidence from Three Studies”,
MIT, 2023